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Irrigation Systems - Book |
Book Information
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Irrigation Systems
Design, Planning and Construction Adrian Laycock ISBN: 978 1 84593 263 3
Price: £65.00 / US$130.00 / €105.00
Subject Classification: KNAC, TVDR Territorial Market Rights: World
Publisher:
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Of all the confrontations man has engineered with nature, irrigation systems have had the most widespread and far-reaching impact on the natural environment. Over a quarter of a billion hectares of the planet are irrigated and entire countries depend on irrigation for their survival and existence. Considering the importance of irrigation schemes, it is unfortunate that until recently the technology and principles of design applied to their construction has hardly changed in 4,000 years. Modern thinking on irrigation engineering has benefited from a cross-fertilization of ideas from many other fields including social sciences, control theory, political economics and agriculture. However, these influences have been largely ignored by irrigation engineers.
Drawing on almost 40 years of experience of irrigation in the developing world, Laycock introduces new ideas on the design of irrigation systems and combines important issues from the disciplines of social conflict, management, and political thinking.
Audience:
Designed to appeal to all those involved in planning, managing and operating irrigation systems, this book will interest engineers, technicians, agriculturalists, economists, students and policy makers.
Contents:
- Evolution and a Prelude to Change
- Elements of Irrigation
- Water Management
- Canal Operation and Automation
- Irrigation Water Demands
- Canal Architecture
- Canal Control Structures
- Low-Pressure Pipelines
- Canal Lining
- Canal Hydraulic Design
- Troubleshooting – Feedback from the Field
- Costs and Economics
Table of Contents
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CHAPTER 1 |
EVOLUTION AND A PRELUDE TO CHANGE |
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1.1 |
A World of Canals |
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1.2 |
The Importance of Small Canals |
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1.3 |
All- purpose Canals |
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1.4 |
Pipelines- why and when |
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1.5 |
Evolution of Irrigation Systems |
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1.6 |
Aid, Finance and Politics |
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Historical |
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Colonial |
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Post-colonial |
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Socialist economic decree |
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The European Union |
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Oil wealth |
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Developed countries |
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Private development and self-help |
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Commercial schemes |
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Virtual water and self-sufficiency |
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1.7 |
We have an Attitude Problem |
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1.8 |
Prelude to Change |
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References and further reading for chapter 1 |
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PART 1 - PLANNING |
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CHAPTER 2 |
ELEMENTS OF IRRIGATION |
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2.1 |
What can irrigation do? |
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2.2 |
Productive, Partial and Protective Irrigation |
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The Upper Swat Canal, evolution from protective to productive |
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Deficit irrigation – the strange case of Albania |
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2.3 |
Equity and Equality |
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2.4 |
Sustainability |
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2.5 |
Guaranteed Flow |
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2.6 |
The Downside – tragic environmental side effects |
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References and further reading for chapter 2 |
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CHAPTER 3 |
WATER MANAGEMENT |
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3.1 |
Levels of Water Management |
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Level 0 - Bulk issues |
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Levels 1 and 2 - Main system |
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Level 3 - Distribution |
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Level 4 - Watercourses, blocks and farm groups |
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3.2 |
Delivery Scheduling |
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3.3 |
Uncontrolled continuous flow |
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Basin flooding of paddy rice |
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The Talli project - wild flooding |
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Controlled wild flooding on the Rufiji |
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The Gezira project flows continuously against the rules |
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Proportional flow |
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3.4 |
Supply scheduling |
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Rotation |
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Pivot points |
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Warabandi |
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Shejpali |
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Indenting |
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3.5 |
Flexibility |
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3.6 |
Demand Scheduling |
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Water on demand |
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Arranged scheduling |
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Semi-demand, arranged scheduling |
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Limited rate, arranged scheduling |
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3.7 |
Intermittent Flow |
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Response time |
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Filling time |
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Absorption |
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Health |
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3.8 |
Institutional Management |
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Line management |
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Unit management |
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Authority and assistance - conflicting roles of water managers |
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Farmer participation in management |
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Privatisation |
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3.9 |
Water Charges |
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By volume |
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By area |
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By crop |
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By time |
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By number of irrigations |
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By season |
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By manipulation of controlled prices |
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By forfeit of crop |
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Free water |
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Education |
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References and further reading for chapter 3 |
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CHAPTER 4 |
CANAL OPERATION & AUTOMATION |
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4.1 |
How Water Flows |
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4.2 |
Canal Sensitivity and Response Time |
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4.3 |
Modes of Control |
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Upstream control |
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Downstream control |
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Mixed control |
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Constant volume control |
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Centralised control |
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4.4 |
Intermediate Storage |
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Storage ponds |
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Night storage canals |
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Night storage vs. night irrigation |
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Level-top canals |
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Related level control |
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Operational spillage |
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Conjunctive use of groundwater |
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Low-pressure pipelines |
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4.5 |
Gate Operation |
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Manual gate operation |
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Powered or motorised gate operation |
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Gate self-operation |
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4.6 |
Gate Control |
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Manual control |
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Refusal gates |
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Remote control and configuration |
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SCADA |
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4.7 |
Why Automation |
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Automation to save labour |
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Automation for easier operation |
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Automation and control |
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Partial Automation |
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4.8 |
Passive Automation |
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Long-crested weirs |
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Self-regulating float-operated gates for constant water level |
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Hunting and transients |
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Counterweighted gates for upstream control |
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Proportional dividers |
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Flumed outlets for proportional discharge |
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Baffle distributors for constant discharge |
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4.9 |
Active Automation |
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Control theory |
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Fuzzy logic |
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Active automation of a canal system |
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Instrumentation, communication and motorisation |
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4.1 |
Evolution from Manual Protective to Automated Productive - a case study |
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References and further reading for chapter 4 |
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CHAPTER 5 |
IRRIGATION WATER DEMANDS |
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5.1 |
Estimating Irrigation Requirements |
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Why plants need water |
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Evapotranspiration |
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Crop water demand |
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Estimating rainfall |
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Field irrigation requirements |
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The root zone |
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Available water |
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Cropping patterns and intensity |
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Calculating field application rate |
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Stream size |
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5.2 |
Water losses |
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Seepage |
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Leakage |
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Management loss |
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Dead storage |
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Absorption loss |
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Evaporation |
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Deep percolation |
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Runoff |
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5.3 |
Irrigation Efficiencies |
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Conveyance efficiency |
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Management efficiency |
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Application efficiency (in-field) |
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Distribution efficiency |
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Overall efficiency |
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Other efficiencies |
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5.4 |
Canal and system duties |
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Canal duty |
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Water management affects canal duties |
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The demand envelope |
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Cropwise irrigation demand - the engineer’s approach |
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The unit stream - the farmer’s approach |
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Flexibility and congestion |
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References and further reading for chapter 5 |
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PART 2 - DESIGN |
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CHAPTER 6 |
CANAL ARCHITECTURE |
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6.1 |
Canal Layout and Water Delivery |
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Command |
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Head |
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Canal hierarchy |
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The tail-end, and associated problems |
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6.2 |
Planning a canal layout |
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Drainage lines |
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Ridge lines |
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Major and minor slopes |
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Blocking out |
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6.3 |
Canal Architecture |
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Parabolic |
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Trapezoidal |
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Filleted trapezoidal |
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Triangular |
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Rectangular |
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Circular or half-round |
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Other shapes |
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Compound channels |
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6.4 |
Canal lining philosophy |
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To line, or not to line? |
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Reasons for canal lining |
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Rapid response time |
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Pumping costs reduced |
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Land tenure problems reduced |
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More land available for cultivation |
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Integrity of cross-section maintained |
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Animal damage prevention |
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Crop encroachment prevention |
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Health |
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Ease of maintenance |
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Reduction of management losses |
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Prevention of seepage out |
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Prevention of seepage in |
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Reduction of siltation |
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Erosion prevention |
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Farmer damage reduced |
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Structures simplified |
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Discharge increased |
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Command level increased |
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Bank stability |
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6.5 |
Reasons for Not Lining |
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6.6 |
Strategies for Lining |
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Durability |
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Hydraulic performance |
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Water management systems |
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Construction requirements |
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Labour resources |
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Material resources |
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Maintenance |
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Levels of technology |
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Quality control and supervision |
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Reducing wastage |
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Reducing salinity |
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6.7 |
Canal Geometry |
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Slope |
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Best hydraulic section |
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Freeboard |
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Wind waves |
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Waves generated from gate operation |
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Waves caused by channel slope change |
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Bends |
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Bank width and slope |
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References and further reading for chapter 6 |
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CHAPTER 7 |
CANAL CONTROL STRUCTURES |
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7.1 |
Access and Safety |
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Canal inspection roads |
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Bridges |
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Access ramps |
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Escape steps |
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Limited side slopes |
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Trash racks |
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7.2 |
Health |
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7.3 |
Water Discharge Control |
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Head regulators - sluice gate type |
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Head regulators – moveable weir type |
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Turnouts - undershot gate type |
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Turnouts - overshot gate type |
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Turnouts - drop inlet type |
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Modular control gates |
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Constant discharge modules |
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7.4 |
Flow division |
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Proportional dividers – bifurcators & trifurcators |
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Open flumes and proportional modules |
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7.5 |
Water Level Control - Cross Regulators and Checks |
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Gated cross regulators for upstream control |
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Choice of gate |
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Self-regulating cross regulators for upstream control |
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Self-regulating cross regulators for downstream control |
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Fixed weirs as cross regulators |
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Notched falls |
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Check structures |
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7.6 |
Velocity control |
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Drop structures |
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Baffled chute drops |
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Overfall and chute drops |
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Pipe drops |
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Rough channels |
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Flow arresters |
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7.7 |
Turbulence Control |
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Stilling basins |
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Transitions and fluming |
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7.8 |
Conveyance and Cross Drainage |
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Choice of structure |
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Culverts |
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Superpassages |
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Aqueducts |
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Conveyance flumes |
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Canalettes |
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Inverted siphons |
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Drainage inlets |
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7.9 |
Overflow Control |
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Side escapes |
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Flushing sluices |
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Tail escapes |
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Siphon spillways |
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Automatic outlet plugs |
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7.1 |
Field Outlets |
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Open cuts |
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Spiles |
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Precast nuccas |
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Undershot gates |
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Overflow slots |
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Plastic siphons |
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7.11 |
Measurement Structures |
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Weirs |
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Crump weirs |
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Replogle weirs |
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Vee-notch weirs |
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Flumes |
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Cut-throat flumes |
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Parshall flumes |
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Meters |
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Ultrasonics |
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Stage-discharge measurement |
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7.12 |
Sediment control |
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Sources of sediment |
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Modes of operation and design options |
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Watershed management |
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Reservoir trapping |
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Regime canals |
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Continuous flushing |
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Silt ejectors and vortex tubes |
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Settlement reaches and settlement basins |
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Dredging |
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Prevention of sand ingress |
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Wind breaks |
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Culverting |
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Removal of dunes |
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References and further reading for chapter 7 |
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CHAPTER 8 |
LOW-PRESSURE PIPELINES |
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8.1 |
Principles of Pipeline Operation |
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The advantage of low pressure |
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Open and closed pipelines |
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Flexibility, and guarantees for success |
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In-built constraints |
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8.2 |
Pipeline Layout |
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General layout |
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Field outlets |
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Involvement of farmers |
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Blocking out and farm groups |
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8.3 |
Administrative Organisation |
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Farm groups and the group irrigator |
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Water Users Association |
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Ownership |
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Water charging |
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8.4 |
Why and When to Use a Pipeline |
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8.5 |
Designing the pipeline |
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Unit stream size |
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Congestion |
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Calculating the pipeline capacity |
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Sizing the pipeline |
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Pipe materials and laying |
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8.6 |
Pressure and Flow Control |
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Harris valves |
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Pressure-reducing valves |
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Float-operated sleeve and disc valves |
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Outlets |
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Pipe inlets |
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8.7 |
Design Procedures |
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Topographic mapping |
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Cadastral mapping |
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Pipe layout |
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Use of spreadsheets in designing a pipeline |
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Choice of Harris valve |
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References and further reading for chapter 8 |
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CHAPTER 9 |
CANAL LINING |
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9.1 |
Physical Influences on Lining |
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Structural stress |
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Hydrostatic pressure |
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Point loads |
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Durability |
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Thermal and shrinkage stresses |
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Soil movement |
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Soil dispersion |
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Scour |
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Vegetation |
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Accidental damage |
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Animal damage |
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Deliberate damage |
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9.2 |
Masonry Lining |
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Stone masonry |
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Stone packing |
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Laterite masonry |
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Clay bricks |
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Stone slabs |
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Precast concrete slabs |
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Precast concrete sides with in situ concrete bed |
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9.3 |
In Situ Concrete |
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Thin mass concrete |
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Slip-forming |
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Joints |
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Reinforced concrete |
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Jointless lining |
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Plaster |
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Ferrocement |
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Fibre reinforced concrete |
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Sprayed concrete |
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9.4 |
Precast Concrete Segments |
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Design |
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Shapes - parabolic is best |
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Size |
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Manufacture |
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Wet casting |
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Hydraulic pressing |
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Pipe spinning |
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Building-up |
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Jointing |
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Laying |
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Canalettes |
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9.5 |
Flexible Impermeable Membranes |
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Polythene LLDPE |
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HDPE |
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Butyl rubber, EPDM |
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PVC |
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Buried membranes |
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Membranes with in situ concrete |
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Membranes with bricks or precast slabs |
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Bitumen and asphalt |
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Geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) |
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9.6 |
Geotextiles, Geogrids and Geocells |
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Geotextiles |
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Geogrids |
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Geocells |
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9.7 |
Other Prefabricated Materials |
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Steel |
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GRP |
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GRC |
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Asbestos cement |
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Timber |
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Recycled plastic |
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9.8 |
Stabilised Earth Lining |
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Compacted earth |
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Soil cement, and cement-bound fill |
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Bentonite |
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Silty water |
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Oil, molasses |
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9.9 |
Unlined canals |
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Tight soils |
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Earth cut |
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Rock |
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References and further reading for chapter 9 |
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CHAPTER 10 |
CANAL HYDRAULIC DESIGN |
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10.1 |
Basic Tools |
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Stable channels and Manning’s formula |
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Alluvial channels and Lacey’s regime formula |
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The depth/top width ratio |
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Other sediment transport theories |
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10.2 |
Canal Architecture |
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Channel roughness |
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Hydraulic geometry |
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10.3 |
Water flow in canals |
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Permissible velocity |
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Velocity distribution |
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Steady and non-steady flow |
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Uniform and non-uniform flow |
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Energy and head |
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Momentum |
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Critical flow |
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Secondary flow |
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Turbulence |
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10.4 |
The Process of Design |
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10.5 |
Using Computer Spreadsheets for Canal Design |
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10.6 |
Manning - a program for canal design charts |
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The usefulness of charts |
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Using the chart |
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10.7 |
Formulae relating to chapter 10 |
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References and further reading for chapter 10 |
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PART 3 – EXPERIENCE |
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CHAPTER 11 |
TROUBLESHOOTING - FEEDBACK FROM THE FIELD |
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11.1 |
Canals That Don’t Work |
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11.2 |
Spotting the Trouble |
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Water doesn’t flow |
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Water overflows |
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Water disappears |
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The drains are running |
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Categories of problem |
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11.3 |
Bad Construction |
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Construction tolerances |
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Supervision |
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Unqualified staff |
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Bad workmanship |
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Obsolete construction techniques |
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Difficult access |
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Poor soil compaction |
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Poor concrete compaction |
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Poor concrete curing |
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Poor concrete finishing |
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Poor control of concrete mixing |
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Inadequate thickness control |
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Bad formwork |
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11.4 |
Bad Design |
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Obsolescence |
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Poor planning |
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Sedimentation |
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Oversizing |
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Unsuitable local materials |
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Not enough turnouts |
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Undershot turnouts |
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Regulators and division structures |
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Quaternaries |
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Design for short life |
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Over-design for high cost |
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11.5 |
Bad Water Management |
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Lack of training |
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Political interference |
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Pressure from farmers |
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Improper gate operation |
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11.6 |
Natural Causes |
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Swelling soils |
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External hydrostatic pressure |
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Animal damage |
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Root penetration |
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Landslips |
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Thermal Expansion |
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11.7 |
Bad Maintenance |
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Siltation |
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Over excavation |
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Vegetation |
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Masonry repair |
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Closing of holes |
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Leaking structures |
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11.8 |
Bad Farmers |
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Incomplete understanding of irrigation |
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Water charges encourage wastage |
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Social quarrels and wilful damage |
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Crops on canal banks |
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Theft |
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11.9 |
Farmer Interference |
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Unofficial turnouts |
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Drainage |
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Redundant canals |
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Damaged structures |
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11.1 |
Corruption |
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Honest John |
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Endemic micro-corruption |
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Macro-corruption |
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Corruption in water management |
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11.11 |
The Answers |
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Proper supervision |
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Design with the times |
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Proper training |
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What engineering is |
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References and further reading for chapter 11 |
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CHAPTER 12 |
COSTS AND ECONOMICS |
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12.1 |
Small Scale Irrigation Projects - the Hidden Costs |
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Cheap schemes - a myth exploded |
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12.2 |
Counting the Cost of Failure - the cost of bad quality |
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Lost crop production |
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Maintenance effort |
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Social conflict |
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Lost Revenue |
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The cost of poor design |
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The cost of bad supervision |
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The real cost |
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12.3 |
The Cost of Good Supervision |
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Supervision cost |
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Supervision cost in perspective |
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12.4 |
Spending Money on Simplicity – The Cost of Automation |
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12.5 |
Spending Money on Posterity – the Cost of Parabolics |
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12.6 |
Spending Money on Flexibility – The Cost of Pipelines |
|
|
References and further reading for Chapter 12 |
|
List of Tables, Figures and Supplementary Figures
LIST OF TABLES
|
5.1 |
Crop factors |
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|
5.2 |
Calculation of irrigation demands |
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|
5.3 |
Rooting depths |
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5.4 |
Indicative water movement rates in various soils, m/day |
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|
5.5 |
Canal duties, Upper Swat System, Pakistan |
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5.6 |
Calculation of congestion |
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6.1 |
Canal Nomenclature |
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6.2 |
Reasons for canal lining |
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6.3 |
Freeboard |
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6.4 |
Bends |
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7.1 |
Head loss (m) in plastic siphons |
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|
7.2 |
Settling rates of sediment |
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8.1 |
Pipeline nomenclature |
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8.2 |
Typical congestion figures |
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8.3 |
Typical pipe friction coefficients for diameters 300 - 900 mm |
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8.4 |
Head losses – alfalfa and orchard valves |
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8.5 |
Congestion calculation |
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8.6 |
Harris valve sizes and head loss coefficients |
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9.1 |
Profile coordinates for precast parabolic canals |
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9.2 |
Minimum thickness of membranes for use in canal lining |
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9.3 |
Durability of canal linings |
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10.1 |
Design guidelines for unlined canals in silty soil |
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10.2 |
Canal roughness |
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10.3 |
Permissible non-scouring mean velocities |
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|
10.4 |
Non-silting mean velocities |
LIST OF FIGURES
|
1.1 |
View Chapter 1 Figures |
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1.2 |
The parabolic Pehur High Level Canal, Pakistan |
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1.3 |
A minor headsluice in the Gezira, Sudan |
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1.4 |
An irrigation channel flows through the Fier oilfield, Albania |
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1.5 |
Centre pivots in Nebraska. Each circle fills a half-mile square |
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1.6 |
A linear-move sprinkler on a commercial farm in Sudan |
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1.7 |
Abandoned land due to salinisation in the Aral Sea basin, Kazakstan |
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2.1 |
View Chapter 2 Figures |
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2.2 |
Irrigation demands and reservoir storage curve – Durres, Albania |
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2.3 |
Tarinit Dam, Albania |
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3.1 |
View Chapter 3 Figures |
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3.2 |
Paddy fields in Java with a continuous throughflow, using bamboo spiles |
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3.3 |
The Rufiji Delta, Tanzania |
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3.4 |
Gezira cotton |
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3.5 |
Katlang Distributary of the Upper Swat Canal |
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3.6 |
Cross regulator on Machai Branch |
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3.7 |
Pivot points on the Upper Swat Canal system |
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3.8 |
Imperial Valley, California. Indenting on a massive scale |
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|
3.9 |
Continuous flow, rotation and demand scheduling |
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|
3.1 |
A traditional line management structure, and improved Unit Management |
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3.11 |
‘Acquacard’ unit controlling water to a hectare of artichokes, Foggia, Italy |
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|
4.1 |
View Chapter 4 Figures |
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|
4.2 |
Upstream control by a float-operated self-regulating gate, Thailand |
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4.3 |
Downstream control gates on the Pehur High Level Canal, Pakistan |
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4.4 |
A pump station on the California Aqueduct |
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|
4.5 |
Modes of canal regulation |
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|
4.6 |
Silt accumulating in a Gezira minor canal, Sudan |
|
|
4.7 |
A lever-operated check gate, Imperial Valley, California |
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4.8 |
Refusal gates installed on a precast outlet, Pakistan |
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|
4.9 |
SCADA-controlled outlet valves supply the Pehur High Level Canal |
|
|
4.1 |
Labyrinth weir used as an emergency overflow structure |
|
|
4.11 |
Parabolic self-regulating upstream control gates, Maskane Project, Syria |
|
|
4.12 |
Principle of operation of downstream control self-regulating gates |
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|
4.13 |
Downstream control in adjacent canal reaches |
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|
4.14 |
A proportional divider abstracts a fixed proportion of the flow |
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|
4.15 |
Modular distributor |
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|
4.16 |
Motorisation |
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|
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|
|
5.1 |
View Chapter 5 Figures |
|
|
5.2 |
Conveyance curves for the Yeleru Left Bank Canal |
|
|
5.3 |
Yeleru Left Bank Canal |
|
|
5.4 |
Wasted water from Arshingeri Tank, Karnataka |
|
|
5.5 |
Management losses from Zaida Minor flood the road in NWFP, Pakistan |
|
|
5.6 |
Conditions leading to heavy water use. The Multaga project in Sudan |
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|
5.7 |
Poor distribution in furrow irrigation |
|
|
5.8 |
Plastic vanes retard the rate of advance in furrows |
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|
5.9 |
Demand curves of commandable area versus field irrigation requirement |
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|
6.1 |
View Chapter 6 Figures |
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|
6.2 |
Yeleru Left Bank Canal, a natural parabolic |
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6.3 |
Equivalent parabolic and trapezoidal profiles for the Pehur High Level Canal |
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6.4 |
Rectangular brick canal, Pakistan, with a ‘pucca nucca’ outlet |
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|
6.5 |
Half-round canalettes, Morocco |
|
|
6.6 |
Constructing a large circular canal, Spain |
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6.7 |
irrigating the slopes of a volcano, Lawu, Eastern Java |
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|
6.8 |
In Eastern Java cassava grown on canal banks soon destroys the lining |
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|
6.9 |
Cattle can wreck small canals, especially in India where cows are sacred |
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|
6.1 |
Brick side lining stabilises the outside of a bend on the Maira Branch Canal |
|
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6.11 |
Standing wave at the end of a steep canal reach |
|
|
6.12 |
Merowe Left Bank Canal profiles, capacity 230 cumecs |
|
|
6.13 |
Alternative profiles for Pehur High Level Canal, capacity 30 cumecs |
|
|
6.14 |
Precast parabolic segments, and the traditional profiles they replaced |
|
|
|
|
|
|
7.1 |
View Chapter 7 Figures |
|
|
7.3 |
Simple lift gates used for check and turnout, India |
|
|
7.4 |
A drop inlet turnout in Sudan – inlet gate and outlet pipe |
|
|
7.5 |
Modular control gates |
|
|
7.6 |
Design for a Crump weir bifurcator |
|
|
7.7 |
Double trifurcator. The flow to each outlet is divided twice |
|
|
7.8 |
Open flume, Pakistan |
|
|
7.1 |
A long-crested weir with convex duckbill configuration, Sri Lanka |
|
|
7.11 |
Parabolic check plate, with field outlet closed at left, open at right |
|
|
7.12 |
Baffled chute drop |
|
|
7.13 |
Notch falls, Upper Swat Canal, Pakistan |
|
|
7.14 |
Glacis fall |
|
|
7.15 |
Stepped Drop cascade in a parabolic watercourse |
|
|
7.16 |
Inlet transitions to siphon aqueducts on the Shamozai Distributary |
|
|
7.17 |
Reverse ellipse flumed transition, trapezoidal channel |
|
|
7.18 |
Drop inlet culvert under construction |
|
|
7.19 |
Small superpassage on the Pehur High Level Canal, Pakistan |
|
|
7.2 |
Siphonic aqueduct, Shamozai Distributary of Upper Swat Canal, Pakistan |
|
|
7.21 |
Kundal Khwar siphon under construction on the Pehur High Level Canal |
|
|
7.22 |
A siphon side escape structure on the Genil-Cabra Canal, Spain |
|
|
7.23 |
Plastic siphons with long-line furrows, Columbia Basin, USA |
|
|
7.24 |
A Replogle Weir at Patterson Irrigation Scheme, California |
|
|
7.25 |
Weir types and discharge formulae |
|
|
7.26 |
design for small cut-throat flumes |
|
|
7.27 |
A canal blocked by Barchan sand dunes in the Nubian Desert |
|
|
7.28 |
A vortex tube structure |
|
|
7.29 |
Silt accumulation in a Gezira main canal, Managil extension, Sudan |
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|
7.3 |
Desilting basins, Dam Jati, east Java |
|
|
|
|
|
|
8.1 |
View Chapter 8 Figures |
|
|
8.2 |
Open, semi-closed and closed pipelines |
|
|
8.3 |
An extreme example of an open pipeline, Westlands, California |
|
|
8.5 |
Blocking out for a flexible delivery pipeline system |
|
|
8.6 |
Gated pipe system, USA |
|
|
8.7 |
Installing MDPE pipe, India |
|
|
8.8 |
Float valves for downstream control |
|
|
8.9 |
Harris valve stands in Topi, Pakistan |
|
|
8.1 |
Installing a Harris valve float |
|
|
8.12 |
Field outlet in a low-pressure pipeline system |
|
|
8.13 |
A Beaumont circular weir outlet from a buried pipeline, Sulawesi |
|
|
8.14 |
Pipe intake from a level-top canal |
|
|
8.15 |
Interactive pipeline design, longitudinal section and pressure distribution |
|
|
|
|
|
|
9.1 |
View Chapter 9 Figures |
|
|
9.2 |
Canal profiles and forces on them |
|
|
9.3 |
Stone masonry, India |
|
|
9.4 |
Brick lining, Sri Lanka. Every joint is a potential source of leakage |
|
|
9.5 |
Precast slabs sliding under their own weight, India. |
|
|
9.6 |
Concrete placing on the Pehur High Level Canal |
|
|
9.7 |
Slip forming the Ghazi-Barotha power canal, Pakistan |
|
|
9.8 |
A paving train for a parabolic canal |
|
|
9.9 |
Laying ferrocement |
|
|
9.1 |
Shotcreting a small canal, Swaziland |
|
|
9.11 |
Parabolic lining is so smooth |
|
|
9.12 |
A field casting yard for parabolics, India |
|
|
9.13 |
Parabolic canalettes, Kazakstan |
|
|
9.14 |
How not to build a canal. Dozing up the banks without compaction, Sri Lanka |
|
|
|
|
|
|
10.1 |
View Chapter 10 Figures |
|
|
10.2 |
A rough canal. The Pitched Channel of the Upper Swat System, Pakistan |
|
|
10.3 |
Channel velocity profiles and distribution with depth |
|
|
10.4 |
Specific energy curve for different canals |
|
|
10.5 |
Toru Minor longitudinal section |
|
|
10.6 |
Toru Minor velocity profile |
|
|
10.7 |
Longitudinal section for Toru Minor |
|
|
10.8 |
Sample charts |
|
|
10.9 |
Sample charts |
|
|
10.1 |
Sample charts |
|
|
10.11 |
Sample charts |
|
|
10.12 |
Sample charts |
|
|
10.13 |
Sample charts |
|
|
|
|
|
|
11. 1 |
View Chapter 11 Figures |
|
|
11. 2 |
Bogribail Canal long section |
|
|
11. 3 |
Bogribail Canal through rock |
|
|
11. 4 |
Paddy in canal |
|
|
11. 6 |
Lining burst by external hydrostatic pressure |
|
|
11. 7 |
Lining undermined by piping of soil through concrete joints |
|
|
11. 8 |
Heavy weed growth in Yeleru Left Bank Canal, Andhra Pradesh |
|
|
11. 9 |
Crops on canal banks damage lining. Cassava, Java |
|
|
11. 10 |
Diverted watercourse in a boundary dispute |
|
|
11. 11 |
Redundant tertiary takes up useful land |
|
LIST OF SUPPLEMENTARY FIGURES AVAILABLE ON THE WEBSITE AND CD
(Supplementary figures are prefixed with the letter A and numbered with relevance to chapters).
View Chapter 1 Figures
A1.1 Nouria, Orontes River, Syria
A1.1b Nouria, Orontes River, Syria
A1.2 Women planting rice, India
A1.3 The Pitched Channel, Upper Swat Canal
A1.4 Precast parabolic canal, India
A1.5 Jalala distributary, Upper Swat canal
A1.6 Drain confluence, Swabi SCARP
A1.7 Coffee under surface irrigation, Zambia
A1.8 Coffee under sprinkler irrigation, Zambia
A1.9 Coffee under drip irrigation, Zambia
A1.10 Kyzl Orda canal
A1.10b Kyzl Orda canal
A1.11 Lake Koronia , Greece
A1.11b Lake Koronia, Greece
A1.12 Genil Cabra Canal, Spain
A1.13 Wind River Canal, Nebraska
A1.14 Flour mill on the Upper Swat Canal
View Chapter 2 Figures
A2.1 Desilting Mahabrabhata Canal, India
A2.2 Desilting a village canal, Burma
A2.3 Irrigating in the rain, India
A2.4 Irrigating coconuts, India
A2.5 Irrigating groundnuts, India
A2.6 Irrigating sugar, India
A2.7 Washing in canal, India
A2.8 Swimming in canal, Ethiopia
View Chapter 3 Figures
A3.1 Bhandara, India
A3.2 Bhandara, India
A3.3 Bhandara, India
A3.4 Bhandara, India
A3.5 Bhandara, India
A3.6 Bhandara, India
A3.7 Bhandara, India
View Chapter 4 Figures
A4.1 Precast parabolic segments
A4.2 Precast parabolic check gates
A4.4 Friant Kern Canal
A4.6 Refusal gate
A4.7 Manual irrigation of sugar cane, Jember, East Java
A4.8 Side weir, Nakambala
A4.9 Folded weir, Abazai Branch Canal
A4.10 Avio gate, Brazil
A4.11 Installing downstream control gates
A4.11b Installing downstream control gates
A4.11c Commissioning downstream control gates
A4.11d Commissioning downstream control gates
A4.11e Avio downstream control gates
A4.11f Commissioning Avio downstream control gates
A4.12 Vlugter gate, sulawesi
A4.14 Neyrtec distributor, Thailand
A4.15 Tush Canal, Kirgystan
A4.16 Radial gates, Morocco
A4.17 Balancing pond spillway, Morocco
A4.18 Silt in night storage pond, Metahara, Ethiopia
A4.19 Silt dredger, Metahara
View Chapter 5 Figures
A5.1 Turnout leakage
View Chapter 6 Figures
A6.1 Flow arresters, abazai
A6.2 Protection groynes, Machai Branch Canal
View Chapter 7 Figures
A7.1 Butcher gate moveable weir, Sudan
A7.2 Romijn gate, Indonesia
A7.3 Overfall gate, Ethiopia
A7.4 Rack & pinion gates, Upper Swat Canal
A7.4b Rack & pinion gate, Maira Branch distributary head
A7.5 Wheel gate, Benton Tunnel outlet, Upper Swat Canal
A7.6 Stoney roller gates, Amandara Headworks, Swat River
A7.6A Stoney roller gates, amandara headworks
A7.7 Farmers cross regulator, Kinda main canal, Burma
A7.8 Combined cross regulator, el Ghab left bank, syria
A7.9 Weir configurations
A7.10 Notch fall, Pakistan
A7.11 Notch fall, Machai Branch Canal
A7.12 Notched check weir, Sri Lanka
A7.13a Stone Masonry rapid fall, Abazai Branch Canal
A7.13b Stone Masonry rapid fall, Abazai Branch Canal
A7.14 Step drop, Karnataka
A7.15 Flow arresters in a small pumped canal, Karnataka
A7.16 Vertical drop, Upper Swat Distributary
A7.17 Baffled chute under construction, Abazai Branch canal
A7.18 Pipe drop, Sudan
A7.19 Onion stilling basin, Burma
A7.20 Parabolic-rectangular transition, Pehur High Level Canal
A7.21 Reverse elliptical transitions
A7.22a Inverted siphon blocked with sediment
A7.22b Inverted siphon entrance blocked
A7.23 Large superpassage, Ghazi-Barotha canal
A7.24 Rectangular section aqueduct, Malaprabha scheme, India
A7.25 Strutted rectangular section aqueduct
A7.26a Siphonic aqueduct, Bheram Dheri distributary, Upper Swat System
A7.26b Siphonic aqueduct, Bheram Dheri distributary, Upper Swat System
A7.27 Conveyance flume, Lezhe, Albania
A7.28 Conveyance flume, Elbasan, Albania
A7.29 Siphon aqueduct, Machai Branch Canal
A7.30 Kundal Khwar siphon inlet
A7.31 Kundal Khwar siphon outlet surge tower
A7.32 Placing concrete in Kundal Khwar Siphon
A7.33 Gandaf cut & cover tunnel under construction
A7.34 Badri siphon, Pehur High Level Canal
A7.35 Badri siphon under construction
A7.36 Formwork for concreting Badri siphon
A7.37 MDPE sleeving in a leaking concrete pipeline
A7.38 Drain inlet
A7.39 Side escape in a small canal
A7.40 Escape chute at an inverted siphon, Kalpani distributary, Lower Swat canal
A7.41 Gated sluice escape with baffled chute, Maira Branch Canal
A7.42 Flushing sluice and labyrinth weir, Machai Branch tail escape
A7.43 Weir type side escape on Maira Branch canal
A7.45a Ardrishaig waster, Crinan Canal, Scotland
A7.45b Ardrishaig waster, Crinan Canal, Scotland
A7.45c Ardrishaig waster, Crinan Canal, Scotland
A7.46 Slide gate turnouts, Karnataka
A7.47 Veenotch weir at a Javanese tubewell
A7.48 Cutthroat flume, India
A7.49b Propeller meter installed in a low pressure pipeline
A7.49a Propeller meter for a low pressure pipeline
A7.50 Silt deposits in an oversized canal
A7.51 Siltation in multaga main canal, Sudan
A7.52 Skimmer weir intake, Sulawesi
A7.53 Desilting the Rahad main canal, Sudan
A7.54 Irrigating with plastic siphons, Zambia
A7.55 Shamozai inverted siphon, Pakistan
A7.56 Kalpani siphon inlet
A7.57 Parabolic check plate turnout
A7.58 Throttled fall, Upper Swat distributary
A7.59 Glacis fall
A7.60 Washing place on a tubewell scheme, java
A7.61 A fall on the pitched channel, Pakistan
A7.62 Desilting reach, Wonji main Canal, Ethiopia
View Chapter 8 Figures
A8.2 Low pressure pipe irrigating grapes , Brazil
A8.1 Low pressure pipe irrigating grapes , Brazil
A8.3 MDPE sleeve in a concrete pipeline
A8.4 Installing a buried concrete pipe, India
A8.5 Orange Cove pipeline intake pumps
A8.6 Slotted outlets to a low-pressure pipeline, Orange Cove
A8.7 Drainage reuse in a low-pressure pipeline, Coachella Valley, California
A8.8 Harris valve stands, Coachella
A8.9 Harris valve
A8.10 Intermediate storage pond, california
A8.11 Harris float
A8.12 Harris floats
A8.13 Drip irrigatiopn from a low-pressure pipeline, California
A8.14 Flow meter in a Coachella pipeline
A8.15 Propeller meter
A8.16 Parabolic canalettes feeding a buried pipeline system, Syria
A8.17 Pressure testing buried concrete pipes, Pakistan
A8.18 Concrete pipe leaks
A8.19 Pipe spinning, pakistan
A8.20 Concrete pipe ready for backfilling
A8.21 Concrete pipe ready for bacckfilling
A8.22 Orifice plate outlet in a low pressure pipeline.
View Chapter 9 Figures
A9.1 Placing concrete lining with a vibrating plate compactor
A9.2 Placing side lining using a plate compactor
A9.3 Manual placement of concrete lining
A9.4 Placing concrete side lining with a Bunyan Tube
A9.5 Placing concrete bed lining with a Bunyan Tube
A9.6 Excavating for a large parabolic canal
A9.7 Parabolic formwork for screed bars
A9.8 Excavating the Pehur High Level Canal
A9.9 Templates and formwork for the Pehur High Level Canal
A9.10 Chain template for trimming a parabolic profile
A9.11 Positioning parabolic screedbar formwork
A9.12 Striking screedbar formwork
A9.13 Screedbar after stripping formwork
A9.14 Screedbars in place, ready for concrete lining
A9.15 Placing concrete lining by crane skip
A9.16 Placing concrete lining by chute and Bunyan Tube
A9.17 Placing concrete lining by chute and Bunyan Tube
A9.18 Placing concrete lining by Bunyan Tube
A9.19 Bunyan Tube in operation
A9.20 Placing concrete parabolic lining
A9.21 Placing concrete parabolic lining
A9.22 Inlet to Kundal Khwar Siphon
A9.23 Repairs to concrete lining using a Bunyan Tube
A9.24 The Pehur High Level Canal
A9.25 Slipforming the Sheik Zayed canal, Egypt
A9.26 Slipforming the Ghazi Barota canal, Pakistan
A9.27 Slipformer on Ghazi Barota canal
A9.28 Excavation of the Ghazi Barotha canal by Holland loader
A9.29a Excavation of the Ghazi Barotha canal by elevating scraper and conveyor
A9.29b Excavation of the Ghazi Barotha canal by elevating scraper and conveyor
A9.30 Parabolic full span trimmer, Genil-Cabra Canal, Spain
A9.31 Concrete lining to a circular profile, Spain
A9.32a Cement/sand plaster lining a small canal
A9.32b Cement/sand plaster lining a small canal
A9.33a Placing ferrocement lining, India
A9.33b Placing ferrocement lining, India
A9.34 Steam curing precast parabolic units
A9.35 Vibrating table for precast parabolic segments
A9.36 Curing pond for parabolic segments
A9.37 Casting yard for parabolic segments
A9.38 Casting parabolic segments on a vibrating table
A9.39 Completed parabolic segments, Pakistan
A9.40 A lifting device for parabolic segments
A9.41 Parabolic watercourse, Pakistan
A9.42 A parabolic following tight field boundary
A9.43 Parabolic segments in place, India
A9.44 Parabolic segment placing by gantry, Java
A9.45 Parabolic placing manually, Java
A9.46 Joint blow in parabolic segments due to external hydrostatic pressure
A9.47 Laying parabolics in wet soils
A9.48 Parabolic segment joint
A9.49 Mastic jointing precast parabolics
A9.50 Gasketed joint in precast parabolic segment, Syria
A9.51 Parabolic segments, Syria
A9.52 Transporting large precast parabolic segments, Syria
A9.53 Precast half round pipes, India
A9.56 Precast hexagonal slabs, Sri Lanka
A9.57 Precast hexagonal slabs, Sri Lanka
A9.58 Precast hexagonal slabs over polythene membrane, Sri Lanka
A9.59 Brick lining, Sri Lanka
A9.60 Buried polythene membrane, Sri Lanka
A9.61 Polythene temporary lining
A9.62 Precast wall segments in a rectangular canal, Kirgystan
A9.63a Preformed GRC lining, Egypt
A9.63b Laying GRC lining, Egypt
A9.64 Half-round timber flume, Montana
A9.65 Asbestos cement channel
A9.66 The Unlined Abazai Branch canal, Pakistan
A9.67 Dry stone packing, India
A9.68 Stone slab lining, India
A9.69 Buried bitumen membrane, Sri lanka
A9.70 Rectangular brick watercourse, Pakistan
A9.71 Rectangular watercourse and pucca nuccas, Pakistan
A9.72 Half-round segments, India
A9.73 Vibrating plate compactor, India
A9.74 Parabolic segments along a rough boundary, India
A9.75 Precast Parabolics, Pakistan
View Chapter 11 Figures
A11.1 Compaction failure beneath concrete lining
A11.2 El Ghab canal, lining failure
A11.3 Failure of thin lining, Java
A11.4 Failure of thin lining, Java
A11.5 Failure of thin lining, Java
A11.6 Cracked masonry lining in swelling soils
A11.7 Farmer turnout , Java
A11.9 Farmer turnout, Java
A11.10 Cracked masonry, java
A11.11 Failure of concrete lining through external water pressure
A11.12 Failure of concrete lining through external water pressure
A11.13 Burst lining
A11.14 Burst lining
A11.15 Burst lining
A11.16 Correct edge lining
A11.17 Collapsed GRC lining
A11.18 A land crab, destroyer of linings
A11.19 Crab hole
A11.20 Rat damage
A11.21 Animal damage, Java
A11.22 Rat damage in an earth canal
A11.23 Avoiding animal damage at a tubewell, java
A11.24 Salvinia choking an Indian reservoir
A11.25 Salvinia choking an Indian reservoir
A11.26 Weed growth in an oversized canal
A11.27 Leaking masonry
A11.28a Failure of a large pipe due to floatation
A11.28b Pipe damage
A11.29 Avio gates in a secure compound
A11.30 Avis gates in an enclosed structure
A11.31 Farmer damage to an offtake structure
A11.32 Overflowing canal
A11.33 Oversized divisor
A11.34 Conjunctive use and leaking canals
A11.35 Missing precast slabs
A11.36 Scoured masonry
A11.37 Thin lining damage
A11.38 Thin lining damage
A11.39 Crazed lining
A11.40 Erosion in the mainline Upper Swat Canal, Pakistan
A11.41 Erosion in the mainline Upper Swat Canal, Pakistan
A11.42 Concrete pipe floating failure
A11.43 Concrete pipe floating failure
A11.44 Concrete pipe floating failure
A11.45 Piping failure at a dam drawoff tower
A11.46 Leaking lining, Java
